Rockaby is a short play which Samuel Beckett wrote at the request of Daniel Labeille from the State University of New York, for a festival and symposium arranged to celebrate Beckett’s 75th birthday.
In the printed text, one and a half pages of detailed description of the stage setup, the actor’s costume and position and so on are followed by eight pages of actual text, the words to be spoken. This is unusual for Beckett, in that it’s written in short unrhymed lines so the text looks more like a poem rather than prose. Less unusual is the fact that all but ten or so words are not spoken by the actor we seen onstage but are pre-recorded. So the majority of the play consists of listening to a tape recording of the actor’s voice, similar to the setup in That Time which features a single actor onstage who never in fact says anything, but listens to three different tape recordings of his own voice interweaving seamlessly.
As part of the Beckett on Film project, Rockaby was filmed in a production featuring Penelope Wilton as the Woman, directed by Richard Eyre. This version runs for 14 minutes, but I can’t find it anywhere online.
For the duration of this short performance, an old woman (‘prematurely old’) with unnaturally large eyes (heavily made up) sits rocking in a rocking chair, while we hear her pre-recorded voice reciting the short lines of the text. Her rocking and the recorded voice both start when the woman in the chair says ‘More’. After a few minutes the rocking and voice come to a stop, there’s a characteristically Beckettian pause and then the woman says ‘More’, and the voice and rocking start again.This pause and then rather harrowed request for ‘more’ occurs four times, punctuating the action, giving it a shape and rhythm.
It’s as if the Woman has to call the voice into action in order to restart her rocking, to give her motion, activity and, by implication, life.
The play premiered on April 8, 1981 at the State University of New York, starring Beckett’s favourite woman actor, Billie Whitelaw, directed by his longtime American associate, Alan Schneider. A documentary film, Rockaby, was directed by D. A. Pennebaker and Chris Hegedus, and recorded the rehearsal process and the first performance. This is the performance segment of that film. It is not great quality but it does feature the brilliant Billie Whitelaw and she was coached for the performance by Beckett himself, so it’s probably as close to being definitive as possible.
The impression is that only the Voice allows her to continue. The Voice keeps her rocking. The Voice keeps her going, ‘keeping going’ being the concern of most of Beckett’s characters ever since The Unnamable was published in 1953.
Repetition
And repetition, arguably Beckett’s central literary strategy. Key phrases and words are repeated numerous times to create an incantatory, spooky, ghostly power, like the witches at the start of Macbeth reciting in unison. It’s quite spectacularly brilliant and disturbing, isn’t it?
went down in the end
went down down
the steep stair
let down the blind and down
right down
into the old rocker
mother rocker
where mother rocked
all the years
all in black
best black
sat and rocked
rocked
till her end came
The text invokes confused identities, seems to indicate that the person going down the steep stair into the basement where the old rocker is, in doing so exchanges identities with the dead mother:
time she went right down
was her own other
own other living soul
So that the physical movement ‘down the steep stair’ appears to also be a psychological transition in which the woman upstairs metamorphoses into the mother in her rocking chair. The overlap of personalities or avatars or spirits comes into focus or crystallises at the three moments where the Woman onstage breaks her silence and speaks the short phrase ‘time she stopped’ in synchrony with the recorded Voice (a trick, incidentally, Beckett had used in …but the clouds… at the couple of moments when the phantom woman suddenly mouths the male speaker’s words in synchrony with him).
In the literary world, this theme of merging identities can be unravelled at some length because literature and literary criticism, particularly of a psychoanalytical persuasion, are obsessed with identity, the self and the ever-threatening ‘other’, the repressed or controlled elements of our psyche which are always threatening to break free.
But on a less highfalutin’ level, the theme of possession is a staple subject of horror novels and movies which routinely feature the innocent heroine venturing down to the spooky basement or the spooky attic to find themselves becoming possessed by a dead spirit – this is the very familiar and assimilable subject of countless horror movies.
Indeed, the image of the old woman dressed in black and gone quite mad and then dead, the image of a dead old woman in a chair, reminds me of Norman Bates’s mother dead in her basement chair in one of the most iconic horror movies of all time, Hitchcock’s, Psycho.
so in the end
close of a long day
went down
let down the blind and down
right down
into the old rocker
and rocked
rocked
saying to herself
no
Beckett and his mother
It adds quite a big new layer to your interpretation of the performance when you learn that in his 20s, Beckett underwent extensive psychotherapy at the Tavistock Clinic in London (over 1,500 sessions spread over two years with the pioneering psycho-analyst Wilfred Bion) in order to bring his panic attacks, night sweats and heart arrhythmia under control. In his massive biography of Beckett, James Knowlson explains that the core of Beckett’s psychological problems, and the cause of his psychosomatic symptoms, was established as his unusually intense love-hate relationship with his mother:
The key to understanding Beckett, said Dr Geoffrey Thompson – who, with Wilfred Bion himself, was the one most likely to know – was to be found in his relationship with his mother. And reductive analysis must have focused on the intensity of his mother’s attachment to him and his powerful love-hate bond with her.
(Damned to Fame: The Life of Samuel Beckett by James Knowlson, page 178)
Mother and son problems, OK. And yet in this and the very similar play, Footfalls, written a few years earlier (1976) it is not a man who struggles with the memory of his mother, but a woman who struggles with the memory of hers. It is a woman in these plays, a woman’s voice, a woman’s psyche, which is dominated and (maybe) taken over by the very old or dead mother, the dead mother whose personality lives on in the daughter, which appears to fight for ownership of the daughter’s mind.
so in the end
close of a long day
went down in the end
went down down
the steep stair
let down the blind and down
right down
into the old rocker
mother rocker
where mother rocked
all the years
all in black
best black
sat and rocked
rocked
till her end came
So you can, if you wish, bring aspect of Beckett’s personal life to the play; or you can dwell on the countless writings about identity and ‘the other’ produced by critical theorists throughout the 20th century (Freud, Lacan, Derrida) and investigate the impossibility of the self, and the multiple conflicts which not only rive the mind, but fissiparate language itself, a tiny glimpse of which is given in the ‘confusion’ or closeness of the words mother and other in the recitative format of the play.
But there is also the simple aspect of the theatrical performance to consider. Just to sit and listen and watch, to let yourself be drawn slowly further and deeper in to an uncanny zone by the actor’s deliberately flat, repetitive, incantatory voice (Beckett was forever instructing all his actor’s to drain all colour and expression from his words, to speak like robots), is to have an almost out-of-body experience.
Watch it with all the lights in the room turned off, close your eyes and drift with the words, and accompany the text on that slow descent into the basement and to sit in the rocking chair of the dead mother. It is a genuinely creepy experience. You rarely find critics categorising Beckett as a writer of ghost stories, of horror stories, but I think they should.
An asterisk indicates that a work was included in the Beckett on Film project, which set out to make films of all 19 of Beckett’s stage plays using leading actors and directors. The set of 19 films was released in 2002 and most of them can be watched on YouTube.
Two more massive ‘books’ contained in one hefty 700-page paperback describing Britain after the war, the first one – The Certainties of Place, under review here – covering the period 1951-5 in immense detail. The main historical events are:
The Festival of Britain (May – August 1951)
October 1951 the Conservatives just about win the general election, despite polling quarter of a million fewer votes than Labour
Death of George VI (6 February 1952) and accession of young Queen Elizabeth II
3 October 1952 Britain explodes its first atom bomb (in Western Australia)
The Harrow and Wealdstone rail crash on the morning of 8 October 1952 – 112 were killed and 340 injured – the worst peacetime rail crash in the United Kingdom
The North Sea flood on the night of Saturday 31 January / Sunday, 1 February
Rationing: tea came off the ration in October 1952 and sweets in February 1953, but sugar, butter, cooking fats, cheese, meat and eggs continued on the ration
2 June 1953 coronation of Queen Elizabeth II
27 July 1953 end of Korean War
12 August 1953 Russia detonates its first hydrogen bomb
The book ends in January 1954, with a literary coincidence. On Monday 25 Lucky Jim, the comic novel which began the career of Kingsley Amis was published and that evening saw the BBC broadcast the brilliant play for voices Under Milk Wood by Dylan Thomas who had in fact died two months earlier, on 9 November 1953.
Tumult of events and impressions
But reading Kynaston’s books is not to proceed logically through the key events of the period accompanied by political and economic and diplomatic analysis: it is to be plunged into the unceasing turbulent flow of day-to-day events, mixing the trivial with the serious, it’s to see the world from the point of view of a contemporary tabloid newspaper – the Mirror and the Express competing for the title of Britain’s best-selling newspaper – with the big political issues jostling for space with the winner of the Grand National and gossip about the stars of stage and radio – and above all, to read quotes from a thousand and one contemporary voices.
Without any preface or introduction, the text throws you straight into the hurly-burly of events, festooned with comments by an enormous casts of diarists, speech-makers, article-writers, commentators, eye-witnesses and so on.
Thus at the top of page one it is Saturday 28 April 1951 and King George VI is presenting the F.A. Cup to the winners, Newcastle. Three days later, on Tuesday 1 May 1951 he is at Earls Court for the British Industries Fair. On Thursday 3 he is on the South Bank to open the new Royal Festival Hall and inaugurate the five-month-long Festival of Britain – ‘a patriotic prank’, according to the song Noel Coward wrote about it, ‘madly educative and very tiring’, according to Kenneth Williams (25).
What makes Kynastons’s books hugely enjoyable is the vast cavalcade of people, from kings to coal miners, via a jungle of ordinary housewives, newspaper columnists, industrialists, famous or yet-to-be-famous writers, actors, civil servants and politicians.
a) They are fascinating on their own account b) Kynaston deploys them not just to discuss the big issues of the day but quotes them on day to day trivia, the appearance of London, the menu at posh clubs, the ups and downs of rationing, the tribulations of shopping in the High Street. The breadth of witnesses, and the range of activities they describe, helps to make the reader feel that you really have experienced living in this era.
Labour exhausted, Conservatives win
Overall, the big impression which comes across is the way the Labour Party had run out of ideas by 1951, and how this contributed to their defeat in the October 1951 general election. (It is fascinating to learn that they only held an election that October because the king told Attlee he was going on a prolonged tour of the Commonwealth in 1952 and would prefer there to be an election while he was still in the country. Attlee duly obliged, and Labour lost. Thus are the fates of nations decided). (There is, by the by, absolutely nothing whatsoever about the Commonwealth or the British Empire: this is a book solely about the home front and domestic experiences of Britain.)
Labour were reduced to opposition in which they seem to waste a lot of energy squabbling between the ‘Bevanites’ on the left of the party, and the larger mainstream represented by Hugh Gaitskell. The bitter feud stemmed from the decision by Gaitskell, when Chancellor, to introduce charges for ‘teeth and spectacles’ in order to pay for Britain’s contribution to the Korean War (started June 1950).
The quiet Labour leader, Clement Attlee, now in his 70s, was mainly motivated to stay on by his determination to prevent Herbert Morrison becoming leader.
The most important political fact of the period was that the Conservatives accepted almost every element of the welfare state and even of the nationalised industries which they inherited from Labour.
Experts are quoted from the 1980s saying that this was a great lost opportunity for capitalism i.e. the Conservatives failed to privatise coal or steel or railways, and failed to adjust the tax system so as to reintroduce incentives and make British industry more competitive. To these critics, the 1950s Conservatives acquiesced in the stagnation which led to Britain’s long decline.
Rebuilding and new towns
What the Conservatives did do was live up to their manifesto promise of building 300,000 new houses a year, even if the houses were significantly reduced in size from Labour’s specifications (much to the growling disapproval of Nye Bevan), and to push ahead with the scheme for building twelve New Towns.
I grew up on the edge of one of these New Towns, Bracknell, which I and all my friends considered a soulless dump, so I was fascinated to read Kynaston’s extended passages about the massive housing crisis of post-war Britain and the endless squabbles of experts and architects who claimed to be able to solve it.
To some extent reading this book has changed my attitude as a result of reading the scores and scores of personal accounts Kynaston quotes of the people who moved out of one-room, condemned slums in places like Stepney and Poplar and were transported to two bedroom houses with things they’d never see before – like a bathroom, their own sink, an indoor toilet!
It’s true that almost immediately there were complaints that the new towns or estates lacked facilities, no pubs, not enough shops, were too far from town centres with not enough public transport, and so on. But it is a real education to see how these concerns were secondary to the genuine happiness brought to hundreds of thousands of families who finally escaped from hard-core slum conditions and, after years and years and years of living in squalor, to suddenly be living in clean, dry, properly plumbed palaces of their own.
At the higher level of town planners, architects and what Kynaston calls ‘activators’, he chronicles the ongoing fights between a) exponents of moving urban populations out to new towns versus rehousing them in new inner city accomodation b) the core architectural fight between hard-line modernist architects, lackeys of Le Corbusier’s modernism, and various forms of watered-down softer, more human modernism.
It is a highly diffused argument because different architects deployed different styles and solutions to a wide range of new buildings on sites all over the UK, from Plymouth to Glasgow: but it is one of the central and most fascinating themes of the Kynaston books, and inspires you to want to go and visit these sites.
Education
The other main issue the Conservatives (and all right-thinking social commentators and progressives) were tackling after the war was Education. The theme recurs again and again as Kynaston picks up manifesto pledges, speeches, or the publication of key policy documents to bring out the arguments of the day. Basically we watch two key things happen:
despite the bleeding obvious fact that the public schools were (and are) the central engine of class division, privilege and inequality in British society, no political party came up with any serious proposals to abolish them or even tamper with their status (a pathetic ineffectiveness which, of course, lasts to the present day)
instead the argument was all about the structure of the state education system and, in Kynaston’s three books so far, we watch the Labour party, and the teachers’ unions, move from broad support for grammar schools in 1944, to becoming evermore fervently against the 11-plus by the early 1950s
Kynaston uses his sociological approach to quote the impact of passing – or failing – the 11-plus exam (the one which decides whether you will go to a grammar school or a secondary modern school) on a wide variety of children from the time, from John Prescott to Glenda Jackson.
Passing obviously helped propel lots of boys and girls from ‘ordinary’ working class backgrounds on to successful careers. But Kynaston also quotes liberally from the experiences of those who failed, were crushed with humiliation and, in some cases, never forgave society.
The following list serves two purposes:
To give a sense of the huge number of people the reader encounters and hears quoted in Kynaston’s collage-style of social history
To really bring out how the commanding heights of politics, the economy, the arts and so on were overwhelmingly ruled by people who went to public school, with a smattering of people succeeding thanks to their grammar school opportunity, and then a rump of people who became successful in their fields despite attending neither public nor grammar schools and, often, being forced to leave school at 16, 15, 14 or 13 years of age.
Public school
Politicians
Clement Attlee (Haileybury and Oxford)
Anthony Wedgwood Benn (Westminster and New College, Oxford)
Anthony Blunt (Marlborough and Trinity College, Cambridge)
Guy Burgess (Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge)
Richard Austen Butler (Marlborough and Cambridge)
Winston Churchill (Harrow then Royal Military College, Sandhurst)
Kim Cobbold (Governor of the Bank of England 49-61, Eton and King’s College, Cambridge)
Stafford Cripps (Winchester College and University College London)
Anthony Crosland (Highbury and Oxford)
Richard Crossman (Winchester and Oxford)
Hugh Dalton (Eton and Cambridge)
Sir Anthony Eden (Eton and Christ Church, Oxford)
Michael Foot (Leighton Park School Reading and Wadham College, Oxford)
Sir David Maxwell Fyfe ( George Watson’s College and Balliol College, Oxford)
Hugh Gaitskell (Winchester and Oxford)
Gerald Kaufman (Leeds Grammar School [private] and Queen’s College, Oxford)
Harold Macmillan (Eton)
Harold Nicholson (Wellington and Oxford)
Sir John Nott-Bower (Metropolitan Police Commissioner, Tonbridge School then the Indian Police Service)
Kim Philby (Westminster School and Trinity College, Cambridge)
Enoch Powell (King Edward’s School, Birmingham and Trinity College, Cambridge)
John Profumo (Harrow and Oxford)
Shirley Williams (St Paul’s Girls’ School and Somerville College, Oxford)
The arts etc
Lindsay Anderson (film director, Saint Ronan’s School and Cheltenham College then Wadham College, Oxford)
Diana Athill (memoirist, Runton Hill School and Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford)
John Betjeman (poet, Marlborough and Oxford)
Cecil Beaton (photographer, Harrow and Cambridge)
John Berger (art critic, St Edward’s School, Oxford and Chelsea School of Art)
Michael Billington (theatre critic, Warwick School and Oxford)
Raymond Chandler (novelist, Dulwich College, then journalism)
Bruce Chatwin (travel writer, Marlborough)
Dr Alex Comfort (popular science author, Highgate School, Trinity College, Cambridge)
Richard Davenport-Hynes (historian, St Paul’s and Selwyn College, Cambridge)
Robin Day (BBC interviewer, Bembridge and Oxford)
Richard Dimbleby (Mill Hill School then the Richmond and Twickenham Times)
Richard Eyre (theatre director, Sherborne School and Peterhouse Cambridge)
Ian Fleming (novelist, Eton and the Royal Military College at Sandhurst)
John Fowles (novelist, Bedford School and Oxford)
Michael Frayn (novelist, Kingston Grammar School and Cambridge)
Alan Garner (novelist, Manchester Grammar School and Magdalen College, Oxford)
Graham Greene (novelist, Berkhamsted School and Balliol College, Oxford)
Joyce Grenfell (Francis Holland School and Mlle Ozanne’s finishing school in Paris)
Alec Guinness (actor, Fettes College)
Frank Richards (writer for popular comics, Thorn House School in Ealing then freelance writing)
Christopher Hill (Marxist historian, St Peter’s School, York and Balliol College, University of Oxford)
David Hockney (artist, Bradford Grammar School [private], Bradford College of Art, Royal College of Art)
Ludovic Kennedy (BBC, Eton then Christ Church, Oxford)
Gavin Lambert (film critic, Cheltenham College and Magdalen College, Oxford)
Humphrey Lyttelton (Eton, Grenadier Guards, Camberwell Art College)
David Kynaston (historian, Wellington College and New College, Oxford)
Kingsley Martin (editor of New Statesman, Mill Hill School and Magdalene College, Cambridge)
Frances Partridge (Bloomsbury writer, Bedales School and Newnham College, Cambridge)
Raymond Postgate (founder of Good Food Guide, St John’s College, Oxford)
V.S. Pritchett (novelist, Alleyn’s School, and Dulwich College)
Barbara Pym (novelist, Queen’s Park School Oswestry and Oxford)
William Rees-Mogg (editor of The Times 1967-81, Charterhouse and Balliol College, Oxford)
Richard Rogers (architect, St Johns School, Leatherhead then the Architectural Association School of Architecture in London)
Anthony Sampson (social analyst, Westminster and Christ Church, Oxford)
Raphael Samuel (Marxist historian, Balliol College, Oxford)
Maggie Smith (actress, Oxford High School, then the Oxford Playhouse)
David Storey (novelist, Queen Elizabeth Grammar School, Wakefield then Slade School of Fine Art)
AJP Taylor (left wing historian, Bootham School in York then Oriel College, Oxford)
E.P. Thompson (Marxist historian, Kingswood School Bath and Corpus Christi College, Cambridge)
Alan Turing (computer pioneer, Sherborne and King’s College, Cambridge)
Kenneth Tynan (theatre critic, King Edward’s School, Birmingham and Magdalen College, Oxford)
Chad Varah (founder of Samaritans, Worksop College [private] Nottinghamshire then Keble College, Oxford)
Angus Wilson (novelist, Westminster School and Merton College, Oxford)
Colin St John Wilson (architect of the British Library, Felsted School and Corpus Christi College, Cambridge)
Laurence Olivier (actor, prep school and choir school of All Saints, Margaret Street)
Grammar school
Politicians
Barbara Castle (Bradford Girls’ Grammar School and and St Hugh’s College, Oxford)
Roy Jenkins (Abersychan County Grammar School and Balliol College, Oxford)
Margaret Thatcher (Grantham Girls’ School and Oxford)
Harold Wilson (Royds Hall Grammar School and Oxford)
The arts etc
Paul Bailey (novelist, Sir Walter St John’s Grammar School For Boys, Battersea and the Central School of Speech and Drama)
Joan Bakewell (BBC, Stockport High School for Girls and Cambridge)
Stan Barstow (novelist, Ossett Grammar School then an engineering firm)
Alan Bennett (playwright, Leeds Modern School and Exeter College, Oxford)
Michael Caine (actor, Wilson’s Grammar School in Camberwell, left at 16 to become a runner for a film company)
David Cannadine (historian, King Edward VI Five Ways School and Clare College, Cambridge)
Noel Coward (dance academy)
Terence Davies (film director, left school at 16 to work as a shipping office clerk)
A.L. Halsey (sociologist, Kettering Grammar School then London School of Economics)
Sheila Hancock (actress, Dartford County Grammar School and the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art)
Tony Harrison (poet, Leeds Grammar School and Leeds University)
Noddy Holder (musician, Walsall Grammar school until it closed, then T. P. Riley Comprehensive School)
Ted Hughes (poet, Mexborough Grammar School and Pembroke College, Cambridge)
Lynda Lee-Potter (columnist, Leigh Girls’ Grammar School and Guildhall School of Music and Drama)
Roy Porter (historian, Wilson’s Grammar School, Camberwell then Christ’s College, Cambridge)
Terence Stamp (actor, Plaistow County Grammar School then advertising)
John Sutherland (English professor, University of Leicester)
Dylan Thomas (poet, Swansea Grammar School)
Dame Sybil Thorndike (actress, Rochester Grammar School for Girls then the Guildhall School of Music and Drama)
Philip Toynbee (communist writer, Rugby and Christ Church, Oxford)
Colin Welland (actor, Newton-le-Willows Grammar School then Goldsmiths College)
Kenneth Williams (actor, Lyulph Stanley Boys’ Central Council School)
Raymond Williams (Marxist social critic, King Henry VIII Grammar School, Abergavenny and Trinity College, Cambridge)
Secondary modern / left school early
Alice Bacon (Labour MP in favour of comprehensive schools, Normanton Girls’ High School and Stockwell Teachers’ Training College)
Raymond Baxter (BBC presenter, Ilford County High School, expelled after being caught smoking)
Aneurin Bevan (major figure in the Labour Party, left school at 13)
Jim Callaghan (Labour Prime Minister 1976-79, Portsmouth Northern Secondary School, left school at 17)
Ossie Clarke (fashion designer, Beamont Secondary Technical School then Regional College of Art in Manchester)
Hugh Cudlipp (Howard Gardens High School for boys, left at 14)
Ian Jack (Dunfermline High School, left to become a journalist)
Clive Jenkins (left school at 14, Port Talbot County Boys’ School)
Stanley Matthews (cricketer, left school at 14 to play football)
Herbert Morrison (St Andrew’s Church of England School, left at 14 to become an errand boy)
Joe Orton (playwright, Clark’s College in Leicester)
John Osborne (playwright, Belmont College, expelled aged 16)
John Prescott (failed 11 plus, Grange Secondary Modern School and Hull University)
Alan Sillitoe (novelist, left school at 14)
Sociology
There are definitely more sociologists quoted in this book than in the previous two, especially in the very long central section devoted to class, which seems to have been the central obsession of sociologists in that era. Kynaston quotes what seems to be hundreds but is probably only scores of sociologists who produced a flood of reports throughout the 1940s and 50s, as they went off to live with miners or dockers or housewives, produced in-depth studies of the social attitudes of East End slums, the industrial north, towns in Wales or Scotland, and so on and so on.
The central social fact of the era was that about 70% of the British population belonged to the manual working class. And therefore, for me, the obvious political question was and is: why did this country, which was 70% ‘working class’, vote for Conservative governments from 1951 to 1964? What did Labour do wrong, in order to lose the votes of what should – on paper – have been its natural constituency?
This central question is nowhere asked or answered. Instead I found myself being frequently distracted by the extreme obviousness of some of the sociologists’ conclusions. Lengthy fieldwork and detailed statistical analysis result in conclusions like such as the working class are marked off from the ‘middle class’ by:
lower income
by taking wages rather than a salary
their jobs are often precarious
they are more likely to belong to trade unions
have distinctive accents
wear distinctive types of clothes (e.g. the cloth cap)
have poorer education
have distinct manners and linguistic usages (for example calling the mid-day meal dinner instead of lunch)
Other revelations include that the children of working class parents did less well at school than children of middle-class parents, and were less likely to pass the 11-plus, that rugby league is a northern working class sport compared with the middle-class sport of rugby union, that cricket was mostly a middle and upper middle class interest while football was followed obsessively by the proles, that the proles read the News of the World and the People rather than the Times and Telegraph.
As to the great British institution of the pub, in the words of the Truman’s website:
Saloon bars were sit-down affairs for the middle class, carpets on the floor, cushions on the seats and slightly more expensive drinks. You were served at the table and expected to dress smart for the occasion. You would also pay a premium on the drinks for this and usually there would be some entertainment be it singing, dancing, drama or comedy. You would generally be served bitter and in half pints.
Public bars, or tap rooms, remained for the working class. Bare wooden floorboards with sawdust on the floor, hard bench seats and cheap beer were on offer. You didn’t have to change out of your work wear so this was generally were the working class would go for after work and drink in pints, generally of mild.
Altogether this central section about class in all its forms takes some 150 pages of this 350-page book – it is a seriously extended analysis or overview of class in early 1950s Britain drawing on a multitude of studies and surveys (it’s almost alarming to see how very, very many studies were carried out by academic sociologists during this period, alongside the regular Mass-Observation surveys, plus ad hoc commercial surveys by Gallup and a number of less well-known pollsters).
And yet almost nothing from this vast body of work comes as a surprise: Most kids in grammar schools were upper-middle or middle class i.e. it’s a myth to say grammar schools help the working and lower working classes. IQ tests can be fixed by intensive coaching. The working classes liked football. The most popular hobbies (by a long way) were gardening for men, and knitting for women. Pubs were a place of comforting familiarity, where you would find familiar friends and familiar drinks and familiar conversations in familiar surroundings.
Compared to all the effort put into these studies, there is remarkably little that comes out of them.
Some of the sociologists mentioned or discussed in the text
Kenneth Allsop reported on Ebbw Vale
Michael Banton, author of numerous studies of race and ethnic relations
LSE sociologist Norman Birnbaum, criticising positive interpretations of the Coronation
Betting in Britain 1951 report by The Social Survey
Maurice Broady, sociologist who studied Coronation Day street parties (p.305)
Joanna Bourke, socialist feminist historian
Katherine Box, author of a 1946 study of cinema-going
British Institute of Public Opinion survey
Professor of cultural history, Robert Colls, author of When We Lived In Communities
Coal is our Life sociologial study of Featherstone in Yorkshire by Norman Dennis, Fernando Henriques and Cliff Slaughter
Mark Clapson, historian of suburbia and Milton Keynes
David Glass author of Social Mobility in Britain (1954)
Geoffrey Gorer 1950-51 People survey of what class people saw themselves as belonging to
historian Richard Holt writing about football
1949 Hulton Survey on smoking
Roy Lewis and Angus Maude authors of The English Middle Classes (1949)
F.M. Martin’s 1952 survey of parental attitudes to education in Hertfordshire
Mass-Observation 1949 survey, The Press and Its Readers
Mass-Observation survey 1947-8 on drinking habits
Mass-Observation survey 1951 on drunkenness in Cardiff, Nottingham, Leicester and Salford
Peter Townsend, social researcher (p.118)
Margaret Stacy studied Banbury (p.136)
T.H. Pear author of English Social Differences (1955)
Hilde Himmelweit study of four grammar schools in London
Richard Hoggart, author of The Uses of Literacy (1957) which reminisces about working class Hunslet
sociologist Madeline Kerr’s five-year study The People of Ship Street in Liverpool (1958)
Tony Mason, football historian
Leo Kuper vox pops from Houghton in Coventry
John Barron Mays’ study of inner-city Liverpool in the early 1950s
Ross McKibbin author of Classes and Cultures: England 1918-1955
Gavin Mellor research into football crowds in the north-west 1946-62
Peter Miskell’s study of the cimema in Wales
John Mogey, author of a study of the Jolly Waterman pub in St Ebbe’s, a suburb of Oxford
Alison Ravetz, author if a study of the model Quarry Hill estate in Leeds
Doris Rich authored a study of working men’s clubs in Coseley
James Robb, author of a study of Bethnal Green in the late 1940s
Elizabeth Robert conducted extensive interviews in north-west England into education (p.161)
Robert Roberts, author of The Classic Slum (1971) about Salford either side of the war
Rowntree and Lavers, author of the study English Life and Leisure
Alice Russell, historian of occupational welfare
sociologist Mike Savage (pp.148, 159)
American sociologist Edward Shils
Brian Simon, communist teacher then at Leicester University
Eliot Slater and Moya Woodside interviewed 200 servicemen just as the war ended about education
1953 report on Southamptons’s housing estates
Peter Stead, author of a study of Barry in south Wales
Avram Taylor, historian of working class credit
Philip Vernon, professor of Educational Psychology at London University’s Institute of Education
John Walton, historian of Blackpool landladies
Michael Young, author of Is This the Classless Society (1951) among many others
Ferdynand Zweig, wide-ranging sociological investigator of the post war years
As far as I could see all of these studies were focused on the working class, their hobbies, activities, beliefs and attitudes – as well as an extended consideration of what ‘community’ meant to them. This latter was meant to help the town planners who agonised so much about trying to create new ‘communities’ in the new estates and the new towns, and so on – but two things are glaringly absent from the list of topics.
One is sex. Not one of the researchers mentioned above appears to have made any enquiries into the sex lives of their subjects. Given our modern (2019) obsession with sex and bodies, it is a startling omission which, in itself, speaks volumes about the constrained, conservative and essentially private character of the time.
(There are several mentions of homosexuality, brought into the public domain by several high-profile prosecutions of gays for soliciting in public toilets, which prompted a) righteous indignation from the right-wing press but b) soul searching among liberal politicians and some of the regular diarists Kynaston features, along the lines of: why should people be prosecuted by the law for the way God made them?)
Secondly, why just the working class? OK, so they made up some 70% of the population, but why are there no studies about the behaviour and belief systems of, say, architects and town planners? Kynaston quotes critics pointing out what a small, inbred world of self-congratulatory back-scratchers this was – but there appears to be no study of their educational backgrounds, beliefs, cultural practices – or of any other middle-class milieu.
And this goes even more for the upper classes. What about all those cabinet ministers who went to Eton and Harrow and Westminster? Did no one do a sociological study of private schools, or of the Westminster village or of the posh London clubs? Apparently not. Why not?
And this tells you something, maybe, about sociology as a discipline: that it consists of generally left-wing, middle-class intellectuals and academics making forays into working class territory, expeditions into working class lives as if the working class were remote tribes in deepest New Guinea. The rhetoric of adventure and exploration which accompanies some of the studies is quite comic, if you read it in this way. As is the way they then report back their findings in prestigious journals and articles and books and win prizes for their bravery as if they’ve just come back from climbing Everest, instead of spending a couple of weeks in Middlesborough chatting to miners.
It’s only right at the end of the 150 or so pages of non-stop sociological analysis of ‘the working classes’ that you finally get some sociologists conceding that they are not the solid communities of socialist heroes of the revolution that so many of these left wingers wanted them to be: that in fact, many ‘working class’ communities were riven by jealousies, petty feuds and a crushing sense of snobbery. Umpteen housewives are quoted as saying that so-and-so thought she was ‘too good’ for the rest of us, was hoity-toity, told her children not to play with our kids etc. other mums told researchers they instructed their children not to play with the rough types from down the road.
People turned out to be acutely aware of even slight differences of behaviour or speech and drew divisive conclusions accordingly. The myth of one homogenous ‘working class’ with common interest turns out to be just that, a myth. THis goes some way to answering my question about why 70% of the population did not all vote for the workers’ party, far from it.
Above all, what comes over very strongly in the voices of ordinary people, is the wish to be left alone, to live and let live, and for privacy – to be allowed to live in what Geoffrey Gorer summed up as ‘distant cordiality’ with their neighbours.
‘You don’t get any privacy in flats,’ declared Mrs Essex from number 7 Battersea Church Road (p.339).
Contrary to the ‘urbanists’, like Michael Young, who wanted to help working class communities remain in their city centres, large numbers of the ‘working classes’ were about to find themselves forced (by the ‘dispersionists’, the generation of high-minded, left-wing planners and architects who Kynaston quotes so extensively and devastatingly, p.340) to move into windy new estates miles from anywhere with no shops or even schools. Those that did remain near their old communities found themselves forced into high-rise blocks of flats with paper-thin walls and ‘shared facilities’ next to new ‘community centres’ which nobody wanted and nobody used and were quickly vandalised. It is a bleak picture.
Love/hate
Lindsay Anderson (b.1923) was ‘a British feature film, theatre and documentary director, film critic, and leading light of the Free Cinema movement and the British New Wave’ (Wikipedia).
But in Kynaston’s opinion, Anderson’s 10-minute film O Dreamland, shot in the Margate amusement park of the same name, ‘marked the start of a new, increasingly high-profile phase in the long, difficult, love-hate relationship of the left-leaning cultural elite with the poor old working class, just going about its business and thinking its own private, inscrutable thoughts (p.220).
Here it is, disapproval and condescension dripping from every frame.
Lady authors
For some reason women authors seem more prominent in the era than male authors. It was easy to compile a list of names which recurred and whose works I really ought to make an effort to familiarise myself with.
Jean Rhys b.1890 (private school and RADA)
Sylvia Townsend Warner b.1893 (home schooled by her father, a house-master at Harrow School)
Elizabeth Bowen b.1899 (private school and art school)
Catherine Cookson b.1906 (left school at 14 to take a job as a laundress at a workhouse)
Barbara Pym b.1913 (private school and Oxford)
Doris Lessing b.1919 (private school till she left home at 15)
Lorna Sage b.1943 (grammar school and Durham)
Sue Townshend b.1946 (secondary modern South Wigston High School, left school at 14)
Books & Boots 